2020 report by Noor Chadha, Bernadette Lim, Madeleine Kane, Brenly Rowland for the Institute for Healing and Justice in Medicine. Clearly describes the problem of using biological race in medicine, and outlines future steps for its correction.

John Hoberman, "Why Bioethics Has a Race Problem," Hastings Center Report 46, no. 2 (2016): 12-18.

"In the September-October 2001 issue of the Hastings Center Report, editor Gregory Kaebnick encouraged bioethicists to turn their attention toward "easily overlooked, relatively little-talked-about societal topics" such as race. In 2000 the president of the American Society for Bioethics had called for a more socially conscious bioethics. Race was risky territory, Kaebnick pointed out, but this challenge did not justify avoidance. Over the next fifteen years, the response to this editor's invitation to examine the racial dimensions of medicine in the Report was limited both in quantity and in terms of the range of topics covered. All told, the bioethics community has not responded to the editor's call for bioethicists to engage with the racial dimension of medicine, and the Report has not really come through on the tacit commitment made in 2001. The lack of interest in race matters evidenced in the Report as well as the American Journal of Bioethics has also prevailed in medical humanities journals, whose few pieces on race have tended to remove race relations from our current realities in two ways: some articles locate medical racism in the American past or in colonial Africa, while others analyze the medical disorders of fictional characters. Bioethicists have not embraced the opportunity to create a sociologically and historically informed bioethics that might be applied to the lives of black Americans and their unending health crisis."

Laster Pirtle WN. Racial Capitalism: A Fundamental Cause of Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic Inequities in the United States. Health Educ Behav. 2020 Aug;47(4):504-508. doi: 10.1177/1090198120922942. Epub 2020 Apr 26. PMID: 32338071; PMCID: PMC7301291.

"Racial capitalism is a fundamental cause of the racial and socioeconomic inequities within the novel coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) in the United States. The overrepresentation of Black death reported in Detroit, Michigan is a case study for this argument. Racism and capitalism mutually construct harmful social conditions that fundamentally shape COVID-19 disease inequities because they (a) shape multiple diseases that interact with COVID-19 to influence poor health outcomes; (b) affect disease outcomes through increasing multiple risk factors for poor, people of color, including racial residential segregation, homelessness, and medical bias; (c) shape access to flexible resources, such as medical knowledge and freedom, which can be used to minimize both risks and the consequences of disease; and (d) replicate historical patterns of inequities within pandemics, despite newer intervening mechanisms thought to ameliorate health consequences. Interventions should address social inequality to achieve health equity across pandemics."

Churchwell, K., Elkind, M. S., Benjamin, R. M., Carson, A. P., Chang, E. K., Lawrence, W., ... & American Heart Association. (2020). Call to action: structural racism as a fundamental driver of health disparities: a presidential advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 142(24), e454-e468.

"Structural racism has been and remains a fundamental cause of persistent health disparities in the United States. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the police killings of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and multiple others have been reminders that structural racism persists and restricts the opportunities for long, healthy lives of Black Americans and other historically disenfranchised groups. The American Heart Association has previously published statements addressing cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risk and disparities among racial and ethnic groups in the United States, but these statements have not adequately recognized structural racism as a fundamental cause of poor health and disparities in cardiovascular disease. This presidential advisory reviews the historical context, current state, and potential solutions to address structural racism in our country. Several principles emerge from our review: racism persists; racism is experienced; and the task of dismantling racism must belong to all of society. It cannot be accomplished by affected individuals alone. The path forward requires our commitment to transforming the conditions of historically marginalized communities, improving the quality of housing and neighborhood environments of these populations, advocating for policies that eliminate inequities in access to economic opportunities, quality education, and health care, and enhancing allyship among racial and ethnic groups. Future research on racism must be accelerated and should investigate the joint effects of multiple domains of racism (structural, interpersonal, cultural, anti-Black). The American Heart Association must look internally to correct its own shortcomings and advance antiracist policies and practices regarding science, public and professional education, and advocacy. With this advisory, the American Heart Association declares its unequivocal support of antiracist principles."

From Annals of Family Medicine

"While this list is not complete, it does include more than 250 published manuscripts and demonstrates expertise as well as a commitment to addressing these complex issues. For example, in 2016, Dr J. Nwando Olayiwola, Chair of the Department of Family Medicine at Ohio State University in Columbus, wrote an essay on her experiences taking care of patients as a Black family physician.10 In January of 2019, Family Medicine published an issue devoted to racism in education and training.11 Dr Eduardo Medina, a family physician and public health scholar, co-authored a call to action in 2016 for health professionals to dismantle structural racism and support Black lives to achieve health equity. His recent 2020 article builds on that theme and describes the disproportionate deaths of Black people due to racial injustice and the COVID-19 pandemic as converging public health emergencies.12,13 In the wake of these emergencies, a fundamental transformation is warranted, and family physicians can play a key role."

Opara, I.N., Riddle-Jones, L. & Allen, N. Modern Day Drapetomania: Calling Out Scientific Racism. J GEN INTERN MED 37, 225–226 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-021-07163-z

"The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted structural racism and health inequity in American society. As the nation reckons with its history of racial injustice, the medical and scientific communities need to directly confront the legacy of scientific racism in research, medical education, clinical practice, and health policies.

“Race” is a sociopolitical construct created as a system of governance that classifies people into a social hierarchy based on invented biological demarcations, thus justifying slavery, oppression, and the exploitation of people of African descent.1 Since the eighteenth century, European and American physicians and scientists have explained the differences between Blacks and Whites on the basis of the perceived inherent physical, sociocultural, intellectual, and spiritual inferiority of Black people, justifying their dehumanization and subjugation. Normal responses to enslavement were pathologized, with Dr. Samuel Cartwright identifying Drapetomania in 1851 as the disease of an enslaved person running away.2 He proceeded to describe Black persons as having smaller brains and blood vessels which account for their “indolence” and “barbarism.” Accordingly, they should be kept in a “state of submission, awe, and reverence as ordained by God” and the treatment for their ailment was whipping. Similar pseudoscientific theories flooded the literature, misinformed medical and scientific practice, and bolstered the economic practice of American chattel slavery. Polygenism, for instance, posited that people sprang from numerous sources and that “races” could be categorized and ranked. Charles Darwin, of On the Origin of Species fame, situated Black people between a classic Nordic ideal and the orangutan on the evolutionary ladder.3 The eugenics movement of the early 1900s drew strength from this thinking and enabled such heinous violations as forced sterilizations and the German Third Reich’s attempts to create a superior Aryan race."

Humphrey, H. , Levinson, D. , Nivet, M. & Schoenbaum, S. (2020). Addressing Harmful Bias and Eliminating Discrimination in Health Professions Learning Environments: An Urgent Challenge. Academic Medicine, 95 (12S), S1-S4. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000003679.

"Bias and discrimination—manifestations of racism and other forms of oppression—are embedded so deeply in American society they prevent us from achieving the democratic ideals of equality and justice for all upon which our nation was founded. The same can be said for health care. As microcosms of our larger society, our intertwined systems of patient care and health professions education also suffer from these pernicious maladies, which carry serious, potentially deadly, consequences for patients. Harmful biases and racial and other forms of discrimination on the part of health care professionals contribute to disparities in health care access, treatment, and outcomes as well as to the higher rates of chronic illness and disease that plague historically marginalized and excluded populations."

Hosted by Nikole Hannah-Jones, produced by Annie Brown and Kelly Prime, with help from Clare Toeniskoetter and Austin Mitchell, and edited by Larissa Anderson, Lisa Chow, Wendy Dorr and Lisa Tobin

"In the United States, racial health disparities have been as foundational as democracy itself."

Friday, September 13th, 2019

"Health Affairs Editor-in-Chief Alan Weil interviews Isabel Morgan, director of the Birth Equity Research Scholars Program at the National Birth Equity Collaborative, on the effects of structural racism on black birthing people's mental health and how we can do better."

Tuesday, October 19, 2021

Hosted by Jim Dryden

"In this episode, we discuss systemic racism — inside and outside the health-care system — and how the COVID-19 pandemic has propelled the issue to the forefront of our national consciousness. We speak with third-year medical student Kamaria Lee about her life as she studies to become a doctor during a time of massive protests and a pandemic."

Thursday, June 25, 2020

Hosted by Tracey Peake

"A recent study by assistant professor of psychology, Vanessa Volpe, found that systemic racism doesn’t just impact access to employment or education, it also affects healthcare quality and availability for Black populations. Volpe explains what that means."

Friday, August 13, 2021

"The history of medicine is filled with amazing scientific discoveries and remarkable innovation, but the profession is also haunted by a history of structural oppression and exclusionary practices that act as barriers for people of color. This history influences the policies, practices, and procedures that govern how physicians are trained in the United States today. In this episode of “Beyond the White Coat,” AAMC President and CEO David J. Skorton, MD, speaks with AAMC Chief Diversity and Inclusion Officer David A. Acosta, MD, about the history of structural racism in U.S. medical education and how that history informs today’s learning environment."

Thursday, October 15, 2020

Lisa A. Cooper, MD, MPH, of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Clyde W. Yancy, MD, MSc, of Northwestern Medicine, and David R. Williams, PhD, MPH, of Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health join JAMA Editor in Chief Howard Bauchner, MD, to discuss racism and structural racism in health care and medicine.

Recorded March 16, 2021.

"Camara Phyllis Jones, MD, MPH, PhD, is a Past President of the American Public Health Association (2015-2016) and a Senior Fellow at the Satcher Health Leadership Institute and the Cardiovascular Research Institute at the Morehouse School of Medicine.

Dr. Jones is a family physician and epidemiologist whose work focuses on naming, measuring, and addressing the impacts of racism on the health and well-being of the nation. She seeks to broaden the national health debate to include not only universal access to high-quality healthcare, but also attention to the social determinants of health (including poverty) and the social determinants of equity (including racism)."

Recorded on May 10, 2019

"In the June 11, 2020, installment of our YouTube Prioritizing Equity series, join practicing physicians and leaders in health care as they share how they are addressing root causes of inequity during COVID-19 and beyond—by centering equity in their workspaces and dismantling racist policies and practices.

Moderated by: AMA Chief Health Equity Officer Aletha Maybank, MD, MPH

Panel:
• LaShyra “Lash” Nolen, MD candidate–Second-year medical student at Harvard Medical School, serving as the first documented black women student council president at Harvard Medical School
• Kamini Doobay, MD, MS–Emergency medicine resident physician at NYU Langone Medical Center and Bellevue Hospital; organizer/founder, NYC Coalition to Dismantle Racism in the Health System
• David A. Ansell, MD, MPH–Associate provost for community affairs, Rush University; the Michael E. Kelly, MD, presidential professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College; senior vice president for community health equity, Rush University Medical Center
• Emily Cleveland Manchanda, MD, MPH–Assistant professor of emergency medicine at Boston University School of Medicine; works clinically in the Emergency Department at Boston Medical Center
• Brian Williams, MD–Associate professor of trauma and acute care surgery at the University of Chicago
• Michael Mensah, MD, MPH–Chief resident at UCLA Health and APA resident fellow member trustee"

Recorded: June 11, 2020

"In this week's Prioritizing Equity panel, join health care leaders for a critical conversation on approaches to dismantling race-based medicine across clinical practice, education and research."

Recorded on October 29, 2020

"Given that journalists who write, or aspire to write, about medicine look at journals for story ideas, the editors of those journals have an indispensable role in identifying and eliminating racism in the review and publication of research. What antiracist steps are leading journals taking? What more should be done? What kinds of cues can help journalists recognize racial bias in a research article?

Moderator: Vabren Watts, equity director, Health Affairs
Panelist: Fernando De Maio, Director of Health Equity Research and Data Use in the Center for Health Equity at the American Medical Association and a professor of sociology at DePaul University.
Panelist: Mildred Cho, Professor at Stanford University and Associate Director of the Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics"

Recorded on November 30, 2021

"Join us for our opening session with keynote talks and a group discussion that consider the use of race in medicine with respect to its historical context and current applications, including considerations related to the evolving science of genetics and the impact of racism on health outcomes."

Recorded on March 24, 2021

Located in Reuther Library

The Kellogg African American Health Care Project Oral Histories are the result of a project carried out by the University of Michigan's Historical Center for the Health Sciences, 1997-2000 (interviews conducted 1997-1998), and sponsored by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, to create and bring together resources relating to the African American health care experience in southeast Michigan from the 1940s through the 1960s. To this end, principal reseachers George Myers III and Ronald Amos and other U-M staff interviewed African American patients, doctors, nurses, hospital administrators, and reprsentatives from regional and national organizations for first-hand accounts concerning health care of the time period, as well as issues of racial discrimination, labor and migration patterns, and attitudes toward the health care system. The collection consists of transcripts and recordings for 41 interviews, plus background files of photocopied clippings and images for some of the interviewees. Interviewees discuss their lives and medical work, efforts to desegregate Detroit area hospitals, and social and economic conditions faced by African Americans, particularly in regard to health care.

Authors: Kristine Andrews, Jenita Parekh, Shantai Peckoo

Publication Date: October 03, 2019

Authors: Joanna Perdomo, MD, Destiny Tolliver, MD, Heather Hsu, MD, MPH, Yuan He, MD, MPH, Katherine A. Nash, MD, Stephanie Donatelli, MD, Camila Mateo, MD, Cynthia Akagbosu, MD, MA, Faraz Alizadeh, MD, Alexandra Power-Hays, MD, Tyler Rainer, MD, Daniel J. Zheng, MD, MHS, Caroline J. Kistin, MD, MSc, Robert J. Vinci, MD, Catherine D. Michelson, MD, MMSc

Publication date: November 25, 2019

"Introduction: The medical community recognizes the importance of confronting structural racism and implicit bias to address health inequities. Several curricula aimed at teaching trainees about these issues are described in the literature. However, few curricula exist that engage faculty members as learners rather than teachers of these topics or target interdisciplinary audiences. [...] Results: We delivered seven 1-hour HER conferences at our institution from June 2016 to June 2018. A mean of 66 participants attended each HER. Most survey respondents (88% or more) indicated that HER promoted personal reflection on implicit bias, and 75% or more indicated that HER would impact their clinical practice. Discussion: HER provided a unique forum for practitioners across training levels to address structural racism and implicit bias. Our aim in dissemination is to provide meaningful tools for others to adapt at their own institutions, recognizing that HER should serve as a component of larger, multifaceted efforts to decrease structural racism and implicit bias in health care."

Authors: Jonte Ellison, Chris Gunther, MPH, Mary Beth Campbell, MSPH, Robin English, MD, Cathy Lazarus, MD

Publication date: April 28, 2021

"By the end of this five-workshop series, learners will be able to:
1. Define critical consciousness and apply the concept to understanding the lived experiences of peers and patients.
2. Explore their own perspective, including individual identity and values, and identify how it impacts interactions in the clinical arena.
3. Explore the concept of privilege, particularly in the context of impact on and perceptions by marginalized individuals and communities.
4. Increase, through case examples and peer discussion, students' motivation to work on addressing health disparities as part of their career in medicine.
5. Identify and practice ways to address their own implicit biases, particularly those related to medical education and patient care."

Author: Dotun Ogunyemi, MD, FACOG MFM

Publication date: April 2021

"Unconscious or implicit biases are attitudes or stereotypes that arise from preformed mental associations, which influence our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.1 Unconscious biases are universal and have adverse consequences for the workplace, health care, and the learning environment.2–4 Studies show that clinicians' negative implicit bias correlated with poorer quality of care, inadequate clinician-patient communication, and health care disparities and inequities."

Authors: Christina Amutah, B.A., Kaliya Greenidge, Adjoa Mante, A.B., Michelle Munyikwa, Ph.D., Sanjna L. Surya, B.A., Eve Higginbotham, M.D., David S. Jones, M.D., Ph.D., Risa Lavizzo-Mourey, M.D., M.B.A., Dorothy Roberts, J.D., Jennifer Tsai, M.D., M.Ed., and Jaya Aysola, M.D., D.T.M.H., M.P.H.

Publication date: March 4, 2021

"Conceptions of race have evolved and become more nuanced over time. Most scholars in the biologic and social sciences converge on the view that racism shapes social experiences and has biologic consequences and that race is not a meaningful scientific construct in the absence of context. Race is not a biologic category based on innate differences that produce unequal health outcomes. Rather, it is a social category that reflects the impact of unequal social experiences on health. Yet medical education and practice have not evolved to reflect these advances in understanding of the relationships among race, racism, and health. More than a decade after the Institute of Medicine (IOM, now the National Academy of Medicine, or NAM) issued its report Unequal Treatment, racial/ethnic disparities in the quality of care persist, and in some cases have worsened. Such inequalities stem from structural racism, macrolevel bias intrinsic in the design and operations of health care institutions, and implicit bias among physicians. The majority of U.S. physicians have an implicit bias favoring White Americans over Black Americans, and a substantial number of medical students and trainees hold false beliefs about racial differences."

Authors: Adolfo G. Cuevas and Courtney Boen

Publication date: March 19, 2021

"There is compelling evidence that racial discrimination is a risk factor for illness and disease. But what are health scientists measuring—and what do they think they are measuring—when they include measures of racial discrimination in health research? We synthesize theoretical conceptualizations of racial discrimination in health research and critically assess whether and how these concepts correspond (or not) to widely used measures of racial discrimination. In doing so, we show that while researchers often use terms such as ‘self-reported discrimination', ‘perceptions of discrimination', and ‘exposure to discrimination' interchangeably, these concepts are indeed unique, with each holding a distinct epistemological position and theoretical and methodological capacity to uncover the impact of racial discrimination on health and health disparities. Importantly, we argue that commonly used measures of self-reported or perceived racial discrimination are just the ‘tip of the iceberg' in terms of revealing the ways in which discrimination shapes health inequities. Scientists and practitioners must be cognizant of and intentional in their measurement choices and language, as the framing of these processes will inform policy and intervention efforts aimed at eliminating discrimination."